2014. április 24-27 között a Magyar Urbanisztikai Társaság közreműködésével és a Visegrádi alap támogatásával sikeresen megvalósult Land-Urbia 2014 konferencia Nyitrában, Szlovákiában. A konferencia központjában az „Urban identity and public space” vagyis a „Városi identitás és közterek” álltak.
A konferencia részét képző kiállításon a Magyar Urbanisztikai Társaság a Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem Tájvédelmi és Tájrehabilitációs Tanszékével együttműködve 20 posztert állított ki a tanszéken készült diplomamunkákból, illetve két doktorandusz hallgatót – Nádasy László és Hutter Dóra – delegáltak Magyarország képviseletére.
A következőkben a Nádasy László és Hutter Dóra kutatási munkájának összefoglalását olvashatják angol nyelven.
Hutter Dóra:
Brownfields and green network development –
Successful international railway rehabilitations and their adaptation into the green development plan of Budapest
Abstract
The major cities and capitals around the globe are competing for such titles as the healthiest, most livable, ecologic or “green city”. Unfortunately the specific properties of the urban structure in the historical cities make it extremely hard to develop new transportation sites or green areas.
The various rust areas considered as valuable sites in our crowded, over built cities with mosaical structure. After the political changes of the 90’s in Central Europe, all the expanded industrial areas, with their belongings like public utilities, transport area, have lost their original functions. Nowadays these are integrated in the urban structure by occupying large and valuable areas and cutting off important urban linkages.
The aim of my doctoral research is to categorize those abandoned railway areas in Budapest that have great potential for urban development purposes. I will demonstrate the opportunities for green system development, and I will prove how they could be valuable linear connections or nodes in the urban green structure or could be important in the public recreation. Nature has been taking over most of the former railway sites lacking built up areas. With responsible decision and professional collaboration their natural values would be appreciated and could serve as a unique city park, green corridor or greenway.
My proposals are based on prestigious international success stories which would be useful for any landscape architect or citizen.
Author: Dóra Hutter is a PhD student and assistant teacher at the Department of Garden and Open Space Design, Corvinus University of Budapest. She earned the Master’s Degree of Landscape Architecture in 2010 specialized on garden and urban open space design. She is interested in urban ecology and urban green network questions. The expected result of her PhD research is a Program of developing the urban green network of Budapest with brownfield rehabilitations. Besides the research and education activities she is working on some landscape design of private gardens and plannig for some national and international student design competitions.
Introduction
The major cities and capitals around the globe are competing for such titles as the healthiest, most liveable, ecologic or “green city”. Unfortunately the specific properties of the urban structure in the historical cities make it extremely hard to develop new transportation sites or green areas.
The various rust areas considered as valuable sites in our crowded, over built cities with mosaical structure.
Terminology
The term brown field was first mentioned in the American terminology and firstly it only meant the abandoned industrial areas. Since then it gained new meanings and several different definitions were published. There are certain publications that merely focus on the terminology itself, but without giving any final classification. Having said that, in this article I will use the following definitions, which are based on the common terminology of the Hungarian research studies[1]:
Brownfield area:
– it is usually classified as an area that fully or partly lost its function, underutilized and abandoned
– former industrial or military areas, with their transportation facilities
– might have real or perceived contamination problems
– another problematic factor is the unsettled proprietary relations and legal regulation and the numerous small real estates.
Brown zone:
The above specified brown areas together form a brown zone. The main industrial areas that involve the industrial, transportational, residential areas with green sites. More than 13% (68km2) of the administrative boundary of Budapest is considered a brown zone, while if we compare it to the built-up area it is 30%.[2] Within a few areas the rehabilitation process has already started, or has already been completed, so the real problem is the so called: rust belt.
Rust belt:
From my point of view the most interesting areas located within the rust belt. It consist of the unused and abandoned industrial sites – with the former facilities or transport areas – that fully lost their functions, and it is unlikely to be restored.
The ruins of the railway system
Transport as part of the infrastructure generates development in a city. It provides public transport, logistics, and creates military and communicational possibilities, resulting a constant growth in the population and urban area. From the second half of the XIX century one of the most significant elements in the urban structure development was the railway. There is a strong relation between the development of the industrial – economical sectors (resulting the current brownfield areas) and the railway network. I researched the development of the railway network, its function in the urban structure, the reduced importance and I was focusing on those areas that:
1. are underutilised or totally abandoned
2. are not involved in the development of MAV (Hungarian State Railways )
3. can be integrated into the urban structure due to their size or location
Based on these aspects I have prepared the cadastral map of the railway rust areas in Budapest. In this study I will introduce the possible ideas for their development. Therefore I have also defined a 4th category which includes those areas that:
4. have great potential in the green area development due to their size or location (figure 1)
First of all I would like to emphasise that a brown area rehabilitation can be favourable even though if it is not a green area or green surface oriented. Any brownfield development would result renewed buildings, environment or open spaces, a better ambiance and biologically active surface rate, or reduce the urban heat-island phenomenon. All in all it is beneficial in the aspect of the urban ecology.
But based on the current extremely low green space coverage per inhabitant in Budapest, during such development we should attempt to keep then raise the biologically active surface rate of the examined areas. Moreover we should also promote its integration to the recreational network.
A well-functioning network which opens up the entire urban structure is well established if the nodes consist of areal elements and connected by lineal segments. In the next table I have collected a few components divided in two groups: the railway and the green infrastructure: (table 1)
By transforming a few abandoned elements of the complex railway network (making use of their original structural properties) we can fill in the holes of the green system. Creating the lack of linear and nodal units can strengthen the functionality of the urban green network.
Case studies
The national and international examples of successful brownfield projects such as tematical public parks, institution gardens, linear green network elements with their unique features, can be very attractive for the local community and even for tourists. Being new recreational areas, green network or conditioning elements they are significant components of the green area network of the settlements.
I will present and introduce international examples of such successful rehabilitations, and developments which will demonstrate: How can we create numerous green elements through brownfield rehabilitations? And moreover how we could also grow the green surface on the railway ruins.
Petite Centuire, Paris
Paris is famous for its grandiose architecture, urban restructuring and reforms and railway network. In 1852 they opened the 32km long railway ring that connected the most important elements of the railway. But after a few decades it became underutilised, by 1934 it was abandoned, and during the past 80 years it was exposed to the natural forces. In the last year various rehabilitation ideas of the different sections such as a new tram line or for example a green way.[3] (photo 1)
Le Sentier Nature, Paris
One of the most interesting low-cost ecological rehabilitation project of the Petite Centuire was the Le Sentier Nature. Between two old stations a 1, 5 km long greenway was opened in 2007. It is a simple walkway in a green corridor with mulch path. The aim of the project is to protect and to exhibit the spontaneous vegetation and to make a new, unique recreational place in the overbuilt city. It is a nature reserve and serves as an educational path. It introduces various vegetation types along the trail and includes many interesting railway rules such as: trails, stone walls, fences, crushed stones.[4] (photo 2 )
Promenad de Plantée, Paris
A more complex and well known urban project is the Promenad de Plantée. There was an old rail way trail from the Bastille (city centre) to the Petite Centuire (rail way ring on the periphery) which has been abandoned since 1969. In 1993 a new, 4, 7 km long promenade was opened, which is the first green way on an elevated rail road. As it was converted from a railway trail, the path line is diverse it goes into tunnels, through cuttings and over embankments or viaducts. There are a lot of viewpoints to the boulevard and squares. The almost 5 km long way connects numerous passages, public squares, parks and gardens. This project had a very different goal: to make a social, economic, aesthetic improvement in the low-prestige district through open space and green area development. One of its featured element the Viaduc des Arts became a real tourist attraction which proves that their original plan has been achieved.[5] (photo 3)
Rails – to – Trails, Washington D.C
The rail trail idea is a well-known term in the USA which means the conversation of a disused railway into a multi-use path, typically for walking, cycling and sometimes horse riding.
Rails-to-Trails Conservancy is a non-profit organization based in Washington, whose mission is to create a nationwide network of trails from former rail lines and connecting corridors to build healthier places for healthier people. Nowadays it has more than 150.000 members and supporters, nearly 20.000 miles of rail-trail and more than 9.000 miles of potential rail-trails are waiting to be built.[6] (photo 4)
High Line, New York
An elevated railroad was built in the industrial district of the western side of Manhattan but it was closed in 1930. A community-based non-profit group was formed in 1999 to create an elevated public green area. Friends of the High Line, the design team and politicians were working together. Firstly they made a serious marketing strategy with spectacular press and design documentation. The first section of the elevated linear park was opened in 2009. By today there are a lot of books, articles, souvenirs and it is not the first, but one of the most famous brownfield rehabilitation in the world. The line runs 30 feet (9 meter) above the streets therefore many stairs and elevators connect the path and the street level. A really unique and modern open space network has been created with viewpoints, public terraces and green elements. The design team mostly protected the spontaneous vegetation, but they also rose up the biological vegetation index with more extensive and intensive green surfaces and built in sprinkler system which is helping the initial growth of plants.[7] (photo 5)
Gleisdreieck, Berlin
It was a transit station which was abandoned after the II. World War. A spontaneous vegetation spread out (with more species than in the Tiergarten) adds a great value to the city. The first part of the huge public park on 17 acres was opened in 2011, and the other 9 acres in last year. The new public park is located in the city centre, it has good access to 3 metro stations, an S-bahn station and the bicycle line. It is a very popular recreational area with multiple functions: playground, sport fields, cross and extreme field, running path, tribune, retreat places and community gardens. The different functional areas have unique types of vegetation: forest with bushes, parkland, huge lawn, gravel with trees etc. … The park was built in the minimal design style, the furniture and pavements have really clean lines of grand elements, and the materials include: concrete, gravel, iron and wood. It is very luminous, tidy and elegant.[8] (photo 6)
Natur-Park Schöneberger Südgelände, Berlin
It is also a rehabilitation of a transit station. As it was an external transfer station in Berlin this site is not in the city centre. The aim of the project was similar to the path of Paris: to protect and exhibit the spontaneous vegetation and create a natur park! It is not only a greenway, but there is also a large area with a lot of railway ruins. It opens up a long path which was built in the forest and runs half meter above the ground. From the path and from the few view towers we can observe the vegetation its original condition.[9] (photo 7)
Parc de Bercy, Paris
This is a 14 acres public park along the Seine River, in the east part of Paris with more brownfield memories. The park was created in the middle of 1990s as part of a project the aim of which was to revitalise an abandoned warehouse area. The external side of the site has a width wall (with a roof garden) which protects it from the noisy traffic areas. Parc de Bercy has 3 sections with different garden styles and functions. The ‘Romantic Garden’ includes fishponds and dunes, the ‘Formal Gardens’ dedicated to plant life and the ‘Great prarie’ is an area of open lawns and sport fields shaded by tall trees. This park is one of the most frequented and beloved modern city parks in Paris incorporating some institutions as well. There are museums, a sport arena and it is connected by a footbridge with the other part of the Seine where the new National Biblioteche was opened with an elegant public square.[10] (photo 8)
Parc Chemin du L’Ile, Nanterre – Paris
This site is located in a degraded brownfield zone within the suburban area of Paris, surrounded by a highway interchange, train lines, the Seine river, a papermaking factory and penitentiary with new business and residential areas. This public park project from 2006 is a part of the long rehabilitation intervention on the urban spaces linking of the La Defense (the mostly modern business) district of Paris. At the entrance of the park a sequence of ponds pump the water from the Seine then filter and store it to be used in the sprinkler system. On 14, 5 acres the park has many scenic seating areas including benches or lawn sites to relax and enjoy the surrounding riverside landscape.[11] (photo 9)
Result and conclusion
These representative international examples show and demonstrate how could another city in similar condition develop a remarkable urban green structure items from an abandoned railway sites. Than I would like to review the potential railway rust areas of the Hungarian capital. Based on the previously described 4 categories I have chosen more than 20 different sites, that are significant from the urban ecological aspect. (figure 2)
I have divided the most potential sites into different groups based on their potential land-use categories. I highlighted those potential areas that have similar characteristics with the previously introduced international examples, and we can see that by transforming how could play a vital role in an optimal urban green structure and green network. (table 2)
The last schematic plans represent how could the new units (with light green colours) are helping the current network (with dark green colour), and how an optimal green system would be like one day. Transforming the rust areas could result in numerous new axises with narrow greenways, width green corridors and really important green areas in the nodes. Finally in the right side map I would like to demonstrate through conscious and long term planning we could create such a radial and ring like green structure. (figure 3)
[1] Barta Györgyi. (editor): A budapesti barnaövezet megújulási esélyei. Budapest, MTA, 2004
[2] Beluszky Pál, Győri Róbert: A budapesti barnaövezet határai. In: Barta Györyi. (autor): A budapesti barnaövezet megújulási esélyei. Budapest, MTA, 2004. 71-74.p
[3] http://petiteceinture.blogspot.hu/
[4] http://www.paris.fr/pratique/paris-au-vert/balades-au-vert/decouvrir-les-richesses-de-la-petite-ceinture/rub_9660_stand_53584_port_23803
http://www.v2asp.paris.fr/commun/v2asp/v2/environnement/baladepc16/index.html
[5] www.promenade-plantee.org
[6] http://www.railstotrails.org/
[7] http://www.thehighline.org/
[8] http://www.gruen-berlin.de/parks-gaerten/park-am-gleisdreieck/
http://gleisdreieck-blog.de/
[9] http://www.gruen-berlin.de/parks-gaerten/natur-park-suedgelaende/
[10] http://www.aviewoncities.com/paris/parcdebercy.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parc_de_Bercy
[11] http://promenades.hauts-de-seine.net/parc-chemin-ile
Zsófia Földi – Balázs Gurdon – László Nádasy:
Analysis of the connection between city and river from the aspect of development possibilities of water tourism
Abstract
Most stretches of rivers flowing through inner parts of Hungarian towns are under-utilized despite their outstanding touristic potential. The otherwise lively water tourism and city life don’t have a connection, even though their interaction would obviously be desirable from an economic, touristic and urbanistic point of view. Urban river stretches are areas of outstanding potential in a key position in terms of both the city and the river – their adequate usage would generate more functions at the riverside neighbourhoods and help boost the importance of river tourism. In this paper we would like to demonstrate the importance of the role connections between city and its river play in utilizing opportunities for water tourism. To this end, we made analyses on three levels: settlement, settlement fringe and river bank.
Authors:
Zsófia Földi is an assistant lecturer of the Landscape Protection and Reclamation Department since 2013. She received degree in landscape architecture from the Corvinus University of Budapest in 2010. She takes part in teaching Environmental Protection,, Landscape protection and Landscape reclamation. Her PhD research topic is the settlement expansion and urban fringe assessment.
László Nádasy is a PhD student of the Department of Landscape Protection and Reclamation (Corvinus University of Budapest) since 2013. He received his MSc. degree in Landscape Architecture at the same Department in January 2013. His research topic is river tourism and its landscape architecture and land-use planning aspects.
Balázs Gurdon is a PhD student of the Department of Urban Planning and Design at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics.
Introduction
Kayak and canoe tours are considered a popular sports activity in Hungary. This popularity is partly due to Hungary’s geographical situation: our rivers are highly suitable for safe canoe and kayak touring for adults, children and families as well, And while Hungary does not have the high mountains, deep canyons or sandy beaches of some of the surrounding countries, it does have an outstanding natural environment and many opportunities for water tourism. The majority of Hungarian rivers are flat waters, with mostly middle course characteristics, thus provide safe paddling and – depending on water quality – bathing opportunities.
However, unfortunately this cannot be said about the built environment of the riverbanks or the infrastructure and facilities of water tourism. Even though watersports first appeared on Hungarian rivers in the first half of the 19th century and subsequent river regulations made the development of appropriate infrastructure possible, river tourism in Hungary has yet to utilize its full economic potential (Bokody 1999). The quality and connectivity of our facilities are – despite improvements in recent years – are still behind European standards and the vast potential behind river tourism is still not sufficiently utilized by municipalities. Even if new watersporting facilities have been constructed in some cities, these usually exist as a separate entity, far from the settlement centre, without any functional connection to it. In addition, since the change of regime, expectations on the side of customers and users skyrocketed: tourists demand high quality, comfortable accomodation, easily accessible services and variable programs, which are most available at the central part of settlements.
Most Hungarian cities situated on rivers perfectly suitable for tourism, river stretches flowing through the inner areas are under-utilized despite their outstanding touristic potential. The otherwise quite lively water tourism and city life don’t have a connection, even though their interaction would obviously be desirable from an economic, touristic and urbanistic point of view. Urban river stretches are areas of outstanding potential in a key position in terms of both the city and the river – their adequate usage would generate more functions at the riverside neighbourhoods and help boost the importance of river tourism. The seemingly paradoxical lack of connection between riverside settlements and their rivers has deep-lying historical and settlement morphological reasons, which still prevent the development of riverside areas.
Settlements are usually founded on waterfronts – an unusual location – because the founders find this special position advantageous for some reason – both in an absolute sense and regarding the competition with other settlements (Perényi 1967). Various factors played a role in the forming of our riverside settlements. Dry riverside areas are easy to defend thanks to the natural protection of the water surface, while the constant supply of flowing water made the creation of moats and fortifications possible. Rivers determine the direction of traffic in its surroundings, the places with easy crossing (fords and narrows) are exceptional and very often settlements were founded on these natural junctions, which became trade centres as well. In addition, taking tolls for crossing was an important income source for these settlements. On plains, rivers were the main source of drinking water, which meant that they were important for supply and strategic reasons as well. Rivers held other resources, too – riverfront settlements were not only harboring trading ships and ferries, but fishing vessels as well. All in all, the proximity of the river meant an opportunity to push ahead in the competition of cities even worth risking the threats the river posed to the settlement.
The greatest enemy of riverfront cities is flooding, one unexpected flood can destroy all the advantages of the riverside situation of these settlements. Because of this, from the 19th century rivers have been regulated in order to ease the way of the water and to keep the rovers in their beds. Several oxbow-lakes were formed during this period, enormous areas of former floodplain were brought into cultivation, while nearby wetlands – the former hotbeds for different and dangerous diseases – were drained as well. Levees were raised between cities and rivers – or, in low-lying areas. completely surrounding the settlements. These, on one hand, protect the city and its inhabitants from the catastrophic consequences of floods, but on the other hand, completely isolate the city and the river from each other.
The memory of floods is still vivid even in cities where the the last floods took place generations ago. Therefore despite the extensive (and often irresponsible) building-up of former floodplains in many areas, the reopening of the city in the direction of the river and the symbolic destruction of the levees have only happened in a few places (e.g. mobile dams in downtown Szentendre). Since water plays an ever decreasing role in their everyday life, cities have become accustomed to a consciuos or unconsious fear of the water, to turning away from the river. The protective function of water has ceased to be, an overwhelming majority of the citizens do not life off the water, permanent bridges have been built almost everywhere, therefore the role of the river in the life of the city has mostly become limited to being a source of drinking water and an element of the scenery. That is why the development of water tourism may hold the key to connecting city and water – aftre a long time of turning away from water, tourism may create a strong functional connection between the settlement and its river.
Material and methods
Our goal was a three-level analysis of the problem. Our paper demonstrates the importance of the connection between city and river in utilizing the opportunities of water tourism. We made analyses on the following levels: settlement, settlement fringe and riverbank. On each level we analysed the relationship between river, city and urban riverbank using different tools.
For the survey, subject settlements have been chosen. These settlements are all situated next to a river with existing water tourism, their population is between 10.000 and 30.000 – this being the scale where water tourism can still be a significant part of the city life while having sufficient economic importance to allow revelant development. Another important factor was the comparability of the built-in area of the settlement and the width of the river. In other words: the river’s effects on the city’s spatial development and riverfront land-uses should be detectable.
According to the above factors six rivers and nine settlements have been chosen: Rába – Körmend, Sárvár; Moson-Danube – Mosonmagyaróvár; Körös – Kunszentmárton; Sajó – Kazincbarcika; Bodrog – Sárospatak, Tokaj; Tisza – Csongrád, Vásárosnamény. We performed the three-level analysis on each of the settlements, which resulted in interesting parallels.
As a first step we analyzed the effect of rivers on the development of the whole built-up area – the settlement structure. We wanted to find out how rivers have influenced the shape and spatial structure of the settlements situated next to them over time. Rivers can have both attractive and repulsive effects on the cities situated near them. Attraction in the spatial sense is if the built-up area of the settlement has been growing towards the river over time. Water is considered to be a barrier if it restricts the spatial development of the settlement – the city structure either stays entirely on one side or even if it spreads to the other side, its growth there is relatively low compared to its distance from the centre. For the analysis we used maps both old and new, laying them over each other and then mapping the city shapes on the same scale, placed on each other. The resulting figures show the development history of the cities and make the effect of the rivers recognizeable.
The second level of our analysis – of the river as a special settlement fringe – originates from the idea of the settlement fringe being the shifting, controversial border of settlements. It is shifting, because its area and location changes constantly as settlements expand, objects formerly located on the outside „move” to the inner areas without actually changing their coordinates. It is controversial, because it is composed of the two main, but essentially different elements of settlements – built-up areas and land not built on. However, settlements often have permanent fringes as well. These permanent fringes are mostly created by natural borders that physically prevent further expansion. The locations of permanent fringes determine the direction of expansion and therefore determine the changes occurring to other fringe areas as well. The definition of permanent borders vary by time – whether a natural border means an actual physical barrier depends mostly on technological advacement (e.g. the urban sprawl on mountainsides).
Rivers create a special permanent settlement fringe. They are special because they always create a fringe regardless of their place in the settlement structure. They block expansion and divide city parts. Connection is only possible by bridging the river, which restricts possibilities. Dominance of the riverfront’s fringe situation and the degree of its blocking the city’s expansion heavily depends on the proportions of the river and the city. If the size of the settlement far exceeds the width of the river, the city will sooner or later overstep the river during its development, balancing the lopsidedness caused by the river.
In this paper we make an effort to categorize types of riverside fringes in order to further establish the possibility of developing water tourism infrastructure. Prior to the categorization, as part of the historical survey we analyzed the quality ond quantity of changes in settlement fringes and the original situation of objects that have recently become part of the settlement fringe. In addition, we analyzed the trends of changes in the fringes of our subject settlements using military surveys, aerial photographs and topographic maps. Based on these analyses and the current fringe situation of rivers we categorized river stretches based on their roles in settlement structure. We separated the following three types of fringes on our subject areas:
External fringe: rivers form an external fringe if built-up areas reach the riverfront but do not extend over the water to the other side.
Internal fringe: rivers form an internal fringe if both banks of the river are built up.
Fringe area: rivers are considered to be fringe areas if the settlement itself (its built-up areas) have not reached the banks yet, but buildings can be found within 1000 meters of the shoreline.
All three types have different development potential from a water tourism point of view. In case of external and internal fringe areas, the presence and possibilities of tourism depends on the character of the built-up areas adjoining the riverbanks. The distiction between internal and external fringes sheds light on the openness of the city towards its river, which can be a considerable factor in designating development sites (e.g. creating a camping on the far side of the river in an external fringe situation would be unfortunate, as the city could only be reached by water). The undevelopedness of fringe areas by itself holds development potential, in this case the environmental value of the areas and buildings preventing touristic use (e.g. bridges) are the main restrictions. This issue is the topic of the third level of our study.
As the third step of our analysis we studied the land-uses and functions of the stretches of riverbank in a settlement fringe position as the goal of the analysis is to unveil the connection between riverfront functions and settlement development. We studied the land-use on the shoreline of the previously categorized fringe types, searching for the presence of water tourism as an independent function. Afterwards, we analyzed whether the stretches of riverbank without any such function are for some reason incompatible with such functions (e.g. because of facilities, activities), preventing the development of water tourism.
The purpose of this part of our study is to determine the significance of water tourism as an independent function on the riverfront parts of our subject settlements. In addition, we determine the proportion of riverbank areas appropriate for touristic development, thereby determining how strong the connection between city and its river is and how efficiently the city utilizes the opportunities the river provides.
Afterwards we studied where water tourism as a significant, independent function currently appears. On areas without such functions we analyzed whether their absence is due to any preventing features making development impossible. We considered the following to be preventing features: industrial or mining activities situated on ornear the shoreline (e.g. mining port in Tokaj, industrial builings in Sárvár); the combination of high-density residential areas and steep levees (Csongrád); areas under bridges, ferry ports and the immediate vicinity of water management facilities (dams, sluices etc.).
Riverbank stretches where water tourism is present as a function are marked with a green bar on our figures (see figure 3). The presence of water tourism has been determined mainly by the presence of its infrastructure and facilities. Water tourism is „a leisure activity taking place in water or on the watershore, but in connection with the water itself. It includes watershore recreation, water sport tourism and sailing” (Donka 2012). With regard to this, we classified areas with existing water tourism facilities (slipway, camping or any other type of accomodation accessible by water, designated bathing areas and ports except for commercial and industrial ports) as stretches with water tourism present. However, we did not classify watershore accomodation and dining facilities as belonging to this category unless they are safely accessible from the water as well. Water tourism (mainly canoe and kayak touring but occasionally bathing as well) may by its nature appear temporarily on almos any shoreline area where docking is not outright impossible. However, its impact on the character and function of these areas and on the settlement itself is so small that we did not take these spots into consideration in this paper. For similar reasons we did not take into consideration undesignated campsites and bathing areas recommended by water touring guidebooks (Bokody 1999) and touristic maps.
Stretches of riverbank without either existing water tourism infrastructure or any preventing features are marked with an orange bar on Figure 3. This category includes both riverbanks already appropriate for docking (grassy or sparsely forested areas) and areas that need to be modified to be able to host such a function. Private gardens and shores with riprap where accomodation or ports may be created have been categorized as belonging here as well.
Results and discussion
The results of our analysis are elaborated in the following tables and figures.
On the subject of the connection between rivers and settlement structure, two clearly identifiable relationship types can be recognized (Figure 1). Cities that were primarily founded near rivers because of the opportunity of easy crossing can be characterized by turning away from the water, with their main expansion axes perpendicular to the river (Figure 2). These cities have not expanded across the river – or only to a very low extent –, even though the two banks are always connected by a bridge. However, the bridge is only a local bond between the to banks connecting them, failing to craete an organic connection or a compact settlement structure (Sárvár, Körmend, Kunszentmárton, Vásárosnamény). As the city can only expand its area efficiently away from the river and not towards it, on several occasions the displacement of the functional city centre towards the geometric centre can be observed, which is one of the main reasons why the city turns away from the river (Perényi 1969). The other main reason is in connection to the terrain and hydrography of the settlements: the cities in question are mostly situated on plains where the favourable crossing possibilities are restricted to a short section – generally very short in proportion to the size of the city –, other riverbank stretches are floodplains. When building the dams and levees protecting the city, instead of building embankments and utilizing these areas, these regularly flooded lands remained in theor original state for flood safety reasons. Therefore, large parts of the settlement became isolated from the water, preventing any strong connection between water and city life.
The other category of medium-sized riverfront cities includes settlements founded on roads running parallel to the river. In this case, the situation next to the road was at least as important a factor as the crossing opportunity in choosing the settlement site (Meggyesi 2008) (Kazincbarcika, Tokaj, Sárospatak, Mosonmagyaróvár). The development axis of these cities is usually parallel to the river, but the axis itself is most often not the river itself, but the road also running parallel to the river, further inland. The central functions of these cities are situated next to the central axis depsite the attractiveness of the riverbank. These settlements turn their backs to the river, due to this peculiar feature of their development history, city life is virtually imperceptible on the shoreline.
When studying the fringe situation of riverbanks in our subject settlements it is clearly visible that all settlements – with the exception of Kazincbarcika – contain stretches of riverbanks categorized as external fringes, meaning that the built-up areas of the settlements extend to the riverfront. In Tokaj, Sárospatak, Körmend and Mosonmagyaróvár stretches of internal fringe can be observed between areas in external fringe situation, whick indicates an openness towards the river. In Kunszentmárton, Vásárosnamény and Kazincbarcika fringe areas are dominant, providing large sections of potential deelopment sites. All three fringe types occur in Sárvár.
Regarding the functions of different fringe types there is a visible trend that water tourism is usually present at external fringes and on occasion at internal fringes (Figure 3.). Fringe areas can generally be categorized as potential development areas, therefore such areas may serve as potential bases of development for projects on water tourism. Preventing features are generally present on external fringes, the connection between river and city is not enhanceable in these areas by water tourism. In the case of internal fringes, the connection between the two banks is already present, the only preventing features in these areas are bridges and their immediate surroundings.
In conclusion, all of the riverbank stretches of our subject settlements contain areas for potential development. This is also confirmed by the statistics of Table 1.
Conclusion
In the study above we attempted to demonstrate that the lack of organic connections between the middle-sized cities situated on riverbanks and their cities is a widespread phenomenon in Hungary. It is important to state as well that by strengthening the bond between them a lot of development potential may become available both for the city and the water tourism industry. The goals of future watrefront development have to be set with regard to the touristic possibilities the cities and rivers hold.
In cities with an attractive image, considerable built heritage and a lively water tourism scene on the adjoining river (Sárospatak, Mosonmagyaróvár, Tokaj), development and expansion of existing touristic functions and facilities may be the primary goal, by which the two branches of tourism (water tourism and sightseeing) could strengthen each other. Ono ne hand, sightseers might be tempted to try canoeing or bathing if the infrastructure is attractive, while on the other hand, canoe and kayak tourers may stop closer to the city centre if docks, camping sites and other services become available.
Cities with a neutral image located next to a river which is a popular touristic destination (Csongrád, Vásárosnamény) could set the maximization of profit resulting from water tourism as their goal. The creation of a well-situated dock with commercial afacilities and services may be a great economic opportunity for local businesses. The expansion of this function in the inner parts of the city could forge a connection between locals and water tourists by bringing them together using common facilities, making them popular amongst residents as well. This merge of target audiences could be key to the off-season operability of the facilities as well.
With settlements with relatively low levels of water tourism and an attractive cityscape or image and a wide range of sights (Körmend, Sárvár), the goal could be opening the city towards the river. It is important in these cities to bring the liveliness of city life down to the river and create the suitable environment for a potentially profitable water tourism industry.
In cities with relatively undeveloped water tourism and a relatively uninteresting city image (Kazincbarcika, Kunszentmárton), the „discovery”of the riverbank could be important for locals and residents of the surrounding areas alike, while the development of their under-utilized waterfront areas could create a new attitude towards the river – it could transform it from a geographic feature into a new possibility.
Bibliography
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Perényi Imre (1969): A város központja. Műszaki Könyvkiadó. Budapest. (pp. 18-19.)
Bokody József (1999): Kék vizeken – Vízitúrázok útikalauza. Mezőgazda Kiadó. Budapest.
Dr. Meggyesi Tamás (2008): Települési Kultúráink. Terc Kiadó. Budapest.
Donka Attila (2012): A folyók szerepe a turizmusfejlesztésben. In: Nyári Diána (szerk.): Kockázat – Konfliktus – Kihívás (…). Szegedi Tudományegyetem Természeti Földrajzi és Geoinformatikai Tanszék. Szeged. (pp. 181-193.)
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Maps:
Tisza Watersports map. PAULUS. (M=1:35000)
First Military Survey (1780-1784). Hadtörténeti Intézet és Múzeum Térképtára. Arcanum Adatbázis Kft.
Second Military Survey (1860-1861). Hadtörténeti Int. és Múzeum Térképtára. Arcanum Adatbázis Kft.
Third Military Survey of Austria-Hungary (1883.) Hadtörténeti Int. és Múzeum Térképtára. Arcanum Adatbázis Kft.
Topographic map of Hungary from the Second World War. (1941.) Honvéd Térképészeti Intézet. Arcanum Adatbázis Kft. (M=1:50000)
Bodrog – Map for anglers, water tourists and cyclists. Nyír-Karta Topográf. (M=1:70000)
Moson-Danube watersports map. Paulus 2008 Kft. (M=1:25000)
Rába watersports map. PAULUS. (M=1:50000)
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